The <curses.h> header file defines variables and constants useful for implementing Curses (see Table 6-2).

Table 6-2 Curses Predefined Variables and#define Constants

Name	Type	Description
curscr	WINDOW *	Window of current screen
stdscr	WINDOW *	Default window
LINES	int	Number of lines on the terminal screen
COLS	int	Number of columns on the terminal screen
ERR	---	Flag (0) for failed routines
OK	---	Flag (1) for successful routines
TRUE	---	Boolean true flag (1)
FALSE	---	Boolean false flag (0)
_BLINK	---	Parameter for setattr and clrattr
_BOLD	---	Parameter for setattr and clrattr
_REVERSE	---	Parameter for setattr and clrattr
_UNDERLINE	---	Parameter for setattr and clrattr

For example, you can use the predefined macro ERR to test the success or failure of a Curses function. Example 6-4 shows how to perform such a test.

Example 6-4 Curses Predefined Variables

#include <curses.h> WINDOW *win1, *win2, *win3; main() { initscr(); win1 = newwin(10, 10, 1, 5); . . . if (mvwin(win1, 1, 10) == ERR) addstr("The MVWIN function failed."); . . . endwin(); }

In Example 6-4, if the mvwin function fails, the program adds a string to stdscr that explains the outcome. The Curses mvwin function moves the starting position of a window.

6.6 Cursor Movement

In the UNIX system environment, you can use Curses functions to move the cursor across the terminal screen. With other implementations, you can either allow Curses to move the cursor using the move function, or you can specify the origin and the destination of the cursor to the mvcur function, which moves the cursor in a more efficient manner.

In Compaq C for OpenVMS Systems, the two functions are functionally equivalent and move the cursor with the same efficiency.

Example 6-5 shows how to use the move and mvcur functions.

Example 6-5 The Cursor Movement Functions

#include <curses.h> main() { initscr(); . . . (1) clear(); (2) move(10, 10); (3) move(LINES/2, COLS/2); (4) mvcur(0, COLS-1, LINES-1, 0); . . . endwin(); }

Key to Example 6-5:

1. The clear macro erases stdscr and positions the cursor at coordinates (0,0).
2. The first occurrence of move moves the cursor to coordinates (10,10).
3. The second occurrence of move uses the predefined variables LINES and COLS to calculate the center of the screen (by calculating the value of half the number of LINES and COLS on the screen).
4. The mvcur function forces absolute addressing. This function can address the lower left corner of the screen by claiming that the cursor is presently in the upper right corner. You can use this method if you are unsure of the current position of the cursor, but move works just as well.

The following program example shows the effects of many of the Curses macros and functions. You can find explanations of the individual lines of code, if not self-explanatory, in the comments to the right of the particular line. Detailed discussions of the functions follow the source code listing.

Example 6-6 shows the definition and manipulation of one user-defined window and stdscr .

Example 6-6 stdscr and Occluding Windows

/* CHAP_6_STDSCR_OCCLUDE.C */ /* This program defines one window: win1. win1 is */ /* located towards the center of the default window */ /* stdscr. When writing to an occluding window (win1) */ /* that is later erased, the writing is erased as well. */ #include <curses.h> /* Include header file. */ WINDOW *win1; /* Define windows. */ main() { char str[80]; /* Variable declaration.*/ initscr(); /* Set up Curses. */ noecho(); /* Turn off echo. */ /* Create window. */ win1 = newwin(10, 20, 10, 10); box(stdscr, '|', '-'); /* Draw a box around stdscr. */ box(win1, '|', '-'); /* Draw a box around win1. */ refresh(); /* Display stdscr on screen. */ wrefresh(win1); /* Display win1 on screen. */ (1) getstr(str); /* Pause. Type a few words! */ mvaddstr(22, 1, str); (2) getch(); /* Add string to win1. */ mvwaddstr(win1, 5, 5, "Hello"); wrefresh(win1); /* Add win1 to terminal scr. */ getch(); /* Pause. Press Return. */ delwin(win1); /* Delete win1. */ (3) touchwin(stdscr); /* Refresh all of stdscr. */ getch(); /* Pause. Press Return. */ endwin(); /* Ends session. */ }

Key to Example 6-6:

1. The program waits for input. The echo was disabled using the noecho macro, so the words that you type do not appear on stdscr . However, the macro stores the words in the variable str for use elsewhere in the program.
2. The getch macro causes the program to pause. When you are finished viewing the screen, press Return so the program can resume. The getch macro refreshes stdscr on the terminal screen without calling refresh . The screen appears like Figure 6-4.

Figure 6-4 An Example of the getch Macro

1. The touchwin function refreshes the screen so that all of stdscr is visible and the deleted occluding window no longer appears on the screen.

Table 7-1 lists and describes the math functions in the Compaq C Run-Time Library (RTL). For more detailed information on each function, see the Reference Section.

Table 7-1 Math Functions

Function	Description
abs	Returns the absolute value of an integer.
acos	Returns a value in the range 0 to Pi sign, which is the arc cosine of its radian argument.
asin	Returns a value in the range --Pi sign/2 to Pi sign/2, which is the arc sine of its radian argument.
atan	Returns a value in the range - pi /2 to Pi sign/2, which is the arc tangent of its radian argument.
atan2	Returns a value in the range - pi to Pi sign, which is the arc tangent of y/x where y and x are the two arguments.
cabs	Returns: sqrt ( x * x + y * y ).
ceil	Returns (as a double ) the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to its argument.
cos	Returns the cosine of its radian argument.
cot	Returns the cotangent of its radian argument.
cosh	Returns the hyperbolic cosine of its argument.
drand48 , erand48 , jrand48 , lrand48 , mrand48 , nrand48	Generates uniformly distributed pseudorandom number sequences. Returns 48-bit, nonnegative, double-precision floating-point values.
exp	Returns the base e raised to the power of the argument.
fabs	Returns the absolute value of a floating-point value.
floor	Returns (as a double ) the largest integer that is less than or equal to its argument.
fmod	Computes the floating-point remainder of the first argument to fmod divided by the second.
frexp	Calculates the fractional and exponent parts of a double value.
hypot	Returns the square root of the sum of the squares of two arguments.
initstate	Initializes random number generators.
labs	Returns the absolute value of an integer as a long int .
lcong48	Initializes a 48-bit uniformly distributed pseudorandom number sequence.
llabs, qabs (ALPHA ONLY)	Returns the absolute value of an __int64 integer.
ldexp	Returns its first argument multiplied by 2 raised to the power of its second argument.
ldiv, div	Returns the quotient and remainder after the division of their arguments.
lldiv, qdiv (ALPHA ONLY)	Returns the quotient and remainder after the division of their arguments.
log, log 10	Returns the logarithm of their arguments.
modf	Returns the positive fractional part of its first argument and assigns the integral part, expressed as a double , to the object whose address is specified by the second argument.
pow	Returns the first argument raised to the power of the second argument.
rand, srand	Returns pseudorandom numbers in the range 0 to 2 31-1 .
random , srandom	Generates pseudorandom numbers in a more random sequence.
seed48 , srand48	Initializes a 48-bit random number generator.
setstate	Restarts, and changes random number generators.
sin	Returns the sine of its radian argument.
sinh	Returns the hyperbolic sine of its argument.
sqrt	Returns the square root of its argument.
tan	Returns a double value that is the tangent of its radian argument.
tanh	Returns a double value that is the hyperbolic tangent of its double argument.

7.1 Math Function Variants---float, double, long double

The following additional Compaq C RTL math routines are supported for Compaq C on OpenVMS Alpha systems only. They are defined in <math.h> . Many of them are float , double , and long double variants of the routines listed in the preceding table. See the Compaq Portable Mathematics Library (DPML) manual for descriptions of these routines.

Note that for programs compiled without /L_DOUBLE=64 (that is, compiled with the default /L_DOUBLE=128), the long double variants of these Compaq C RTL math routines map to the X_FLOAT entry points documented in the DPML manual.

acosd cbrt expm1l ldexpl scalbf acosdf cbrtf fabsf lgamma scalbl acosdl cbrtl fabsl lgammaf sind acosf ceilf fabsl lgammal sindf acosl ceill finite log10f sindl acosh copysign finitef log10l sinf acoshf copysignf finitel log1p sinl acoshl copysignl floorf log1pf sinhf asind cosd floorl log1pl sinhl asindf cosdf fmodf log2 sqrtf asindl cosdl fmodl log2f sqrtl asinf cosf fp_class log2l tand asinl cosl fp_classf logb tandf asinh coshf fp_classl logbf tandl asinhf coshl frexpf logbl tanf asinhl cot frexpl logf tanl atan2f cotd hypotf logl tanhf atan2l cotdf hypotl modff tanhl atand cotdl isnan modfl trunc atand2 cotf isnanf nextafter truncf atand2f cotl isnanl nextafterf truncl atand2l erf j0 nextafterl unordered atandf erfc j0f nint unorderedf atandl erfcf j0l nintf unorderedl atanf erfcl j1 nintl y0 atanl erff j1f powf y0f atanh erfl j1l powl y0l atanhf expf jn rint y1 atanhl expl jnf rintf y1f cabsf expm1 jnl rintl y1l cabsl expm1f ldexpf scalb yn ynf ynl

7.2 Error Detection

To help you detect run-time errors, the <errno.h> header file defines the following two symbolic values that are returned by many (but not all) of the mathematical functions:

• EDOM indicates that an argument is inappropriate; the argument is not within the function's domain.
• ERANGE indicates that a result is out of range; the argument is too large or too small to be represented by the machine.

When using the math functions, you can check the external variable errno for either or both of these values and take the appropriate action if an error occurs.

The following program example checks the variable errno for the value EDOM, which indicates that a negative number was specified as input to the function sqrt :

#include <errno.h> #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> main() { double input, square_root; printf("Enter a number: "); scanf("%le", &input); errno = 0; square_root = sqrt(input); if (errno == EDOM) perror("Input was negative"); else printf("Square root of %e = %e\n", input, square_root); }

If you did not check errno for this symbolic value, the sqrt function returns 0 when a negative number is entered. For more information about the <errno.h> header file, see Chapter 4.

7.3 The <fp.h> Header File

The <fp.h> header file implements some of the features defined by the Numerical C Extensions Group of the ANSI X3J11 committee. You might find this useful for applications that make extensive use of floating-point functions.

Some of the double-precision functions listed in this chapter return the value ±HUGE_VAL (defined in either <math.h> or <fp.h> ) if the result is out of range. The float version of those functions return the value HUGE_VALF (defined only in <fp.h> ) for the same conditions. The long double version returns the value HUGE_VALL (also defined in <fp.h> ).

For programs compiled to enable IEEE infinity and NaN values, the values HUGE_VAL, HUGE_VALF, and HUGE_VALL are expressions, not compile-time constants. Initializations such as the following cause a compile-time error:

$ CREATE IEEE_INFINITY.C #include <fp.h> double my_huge_val = HUGE_VAL ^Z $ CC /FLOAT=IEEE/IEEE=DENORM IEEE_INFINITY double my_huge_val = HUGE_VAL; .....................^ %CC-E-NEEDCONSTEXPR, In the initializer for my_huge_val, "decc$gt_dbl_infinity" is not constant, but occurs in a context that requires a constant expression. at line number 3 in file WORK1$:[RTL]IEEE_INFINITY.C;1 $

When using both <math.h> and <fp.h> , be aware that <math.h> defines a function isnan and <fp.h> defines a macro by the same name. Whichever header is included first in the application will resolve a reference to isnan .

7.4 Example

Example 7-1 shows how the tan , sin , and cos functions operate.

Example 7-1 Calculating and Verifying a Tangent Value

/* CHAP_7_MATH_EXAMPLE.C */ /* This example uses two functions --- mytan and main --- */ /* to calculate the tangent value of a number, and to check */ /* the calculation using the sin and cos functions. */ #include <math.h> #include <stdio.h> /* This function calculates the tangent using the sin and */ /* cos functions. */ double mytan(x) double x; { double y, y1, y2; y1 = sin(x); y2 = cos(x); if (y2 == 0) y = 0; else y = y1 / y2; return y; } main() { double x; /* Print values: compare */ for (x = 0.0; x < 1.5; x += 0.1) printf("tan of %4.1f = %6.2f\t%6.2f\n", x, mytan(x), tan(x)); }

Example 7-1 produces the following output:

$ RUN EXAMPLE tan of 0.0 = 0.00 0.00 tan of 0.1 = 0.10 0.10 tan of 0.2 = 0.20 0.20 tan of 0.3 = 0.31 0.31 tan of 0.4 = 0.42 0.42 tan of 0.5 = 0.55 0.55 tan of 0.6 = 0.68 0.68 tan of 0.7 = 0.84 0.84 tan of 0.8 = 1.03 1.03 tan of 0.9 = 1.26 1.26 tan of 1.0 = 1.56 1.56 tan of 1.1 = 1.96 1.96 tan of 1.2 = 2.57 2.57 tan of 1.3 = 3.60 3.60 tan of 1.4 = 5.80 5.80 $

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