Generates uniformly distributed pseudorandom number sequences. Returns 48-bit signed long integers.

Format

#include <stdlib.h>

long int nrand48 (unsigned short int xsubi[3]);

Arguments

xsubi

An array of three short int that, when concatentated together, form a 48-bit integer.

Description

This function generates pseudorandom numbers using the linear congruential algorithm and 48-bit integer arithmetic.

The nrand48 function returns nonnegative, long integers uniformly distributed over the range of y values, such that 0 <= y < 2³¹ .

The function works by generating a sequence of 48-bit integer values, Xi, according to the linear congruential formula:

Xn+1 = (aXn+c)mod m n >= 0

The argument m equals 2⁴⁸ , so 48-bit integer arithmetic is performed. Unless you invoke the lcong48 function, the multiplier value a and the addend value c are:

a = 5DEECE66D16 = 2736731631558 c = B16 = 138

The nrand48 function requires that the calling program pass an array as the xsubi argument, which for the first call must be initialized to the initial value of the pseudorandom number sequence. Unlike the drand48 function, it is not necessary to call an initialization function prior to the first call.

By using different arguments, the nrand48 function allows separate modules of a large program to generate several independent sequences of pseudorandom numbers. For example, the sequence of numbers that one module generates does not depend upon how many times the functions are called by other modules.

Return Values

n	Returns nonnegative, long integers over the range 0 <= y < 2 31 .

Opens a file for reading, writing, or editing. It positions the file at its beginning (byte 0).

Format

#include <fcntl.h>

int open (const char *file_spec, int flags, mode_t mode); (ANSI C)

int open (const char *file_spec, int flags, ...); (COMPAQ C EXTENSION)

Arguments

file_spec

A null-terminated character string containing a valid file specification. If you specify a directory in the file_spec and it is a search list that contains an error, Compaq C interprets it as a file open error.

flags

The following values are defined in the <file.h> header file:

O_RDONLY	Open for reading only
O_WRONLY	Open for writing only
O_RDWR	Open for reading and writing
O_NDELAY	Open for asynchronous input
O_APPEND	Append on each write
O_CREAT	Create a file if it does not exist
O_TRUNC	Create a new version of this file
O_EXCL	Error if attempting to create existing file

These flags are set using the bitwise OR operator (|) to separate specified flags.

Opening a file with O_APPEND causes each write on the file to be appended to the end. (In contrast, with the VAX C RTL the behavior of files opened in append mode was to start at EOF and, thereafter, write at the current file position.)

If O_TRUNC is specified and the file exists, open creates a new file by incrementing the version number by 1, leaving the old version in existence.

If O_CREAT is set and the named file does not exist, the Compaq C RTL creates it with any attributes specified in the fourth and subsequent arguments (...). If O_EXCL is set with O_CREAT and the named file exists, the attempted open returns an error.

mode

An unsigned value that specifies the file-protection mode. The compiler performs a bitwise AND operation on the mode and the complement of the current protection mode.

You can construct modes by using the bitwise OR operator (|) to separate specified modes. The modes are:

0400	OWNER:READ
0200	OWNER:WRITE
0100	OWNER:EXECUTE
0040	GROUP:READ
0020	GROUP:WRITE
0010	GROUP:EXECUTE
0004	WORLD:READ
0002	WORLD:WRITE
0001	WORLD:EXECUTE

The system is given the same access privileges as the owner. A WRITE privilege also implies a DELETE privilege.

...

Optional file attribute arguments. The file attribute arguments are the same as those used in the creat function. For more information, see the creat function.

Description

If a version of the file exists, a new file created with open inherits certain attributes from the existing file unless those attributes are specified in the open call. The following attributes are inherited: record format, maximum record size, carriage control, and file protection.

Notes If you intend to do random writing to a file, the file must be opened for update by specifying a flags value of O_RDWR. To create files with OpenVMS RMS default protections by using the UNIX system-call functions umask , mkdir , creat , and open , call mkdir , creat , and open with a file-protection mode argument of 0777 in a program that never specifically calls umask . These default protections include correctly establishing protections based on ACLs, previous versions of files, and so on. In programs that do vfork / exec calls, the new process image inherits whether umask has ever been called or not from the calling process image. The umask setting and whether the umask function has ever been called are both inherited attributes.

See also creat , read , write , close , dup , dup2 , and lseek in this section.

Return Values

x	A nonnegative file descriptor number.
--1	Indicates that the file does not exist, that it is protected against reading or writing, or that it cannot be opened for another reason.

Example

#include <unixio.h> #include <file.h> #include <stdlib.h> main() { int file, stat; int flags; flags = O_RDWR; /* Open for read and write, */ /* with user default file protection, */ /* with max fixed record size of 2048, */ /* and a block size of 2048 bytes. */ file = open("file.dat", flags, 0, "rfm=fix", "mrs=2048", "bls=2048"); if (file == -1) perror("OPEN error"), exit(1); close(file); }

Opens a specified directory.

Format

#include <dirent.h>

DIR *opendir (const char *dir_name);

Arguments

dir_name

The name of the directory to be opened.

Description

This function opens the directory specifed by dir_name and associates a directory stream with it. The directory stream is positioned at the first entry. The type DIR , defined in the <dirent.h> header file, represents a directory stream. A directory stream is an ordered sequence of all the directory entries in a particular directory.

The opendir function also returns a pointer to identify the directory stream in subsequent operations. The NULL pointer is returned when the directory named by dir_name cannot be accessed, or when not enough memory is available to hold the entire stream.

Note An open directory must always be closed with the closedir function to ensure that the next attempt to open that directory is successful. The opendir function should be used with readdir , closedir , and rewinddir to examine the contents of the directory.

Example

See the program example in the description of closedir .

Return Values

x	A pointer to an object of type DIR .
NULL	Indicates an error; errno is set to one of the following values: EACCES -- Search permission is denied for any component of dir_name or read permission is denied for dir_name. ENAMETOOLONG -- The length of the dir_name string exceeds PATH_MAX, or a pathname component is longer than NAME_MAX. ENOENT -- The dir_name argument points to the name of a file that does not exist, or is an empty string.

Nondestructively superimposes win1 on win2. The function writes the contents of win1 that will fit onto win2 beginning at the starting coordinates of both windows. Blanks on win1 leave the contents of the corresponding space on win2 unaltered. The overlay function copies as much of a window's box as possible.

Format

#include <curses.h>

int overlay (WINDOW *win1, WINDOW *win2);

Arguments

win1

A pointer to the window.

win2

A pointer to the window.

Return Values

OK	Indicates success.
ERR	Indicates an error.

Destructively writes the contents of win1 on win2.

Format

#include <curses.h>

int overwrite (WINDOW *win1, WINDOW *win2);

Arguments

win1

A pointer to the window.

win2

A pointer to the window.

Description

This function writes the contents of win1 that will fit onto win2 beginning at the starting coordinates of both windows. Blanks on win1 are written on win2 as blanks. This function copies as much of a window's box as possible.

Return Values

OK	Indicates success.
ERR	Indicates failure.

Retrieves file implementation characteristics.

Format

#include <unistd.h>

long int pathconf (const char *path, int name);

Arguments

path

The pathname of a file or directory.

name

The configuration attribute to query. If this attribute is not applicable to the file specified by the path argument, the pathconf function returns an error.

Description

This function allows an application to determine the characteristics of operations supported by the file system underlying the file named by path. Read, write, or execute permission of the named file is not required, but you must be able to search all directories in the path leading to the file.

Symbolic values for the name argument are defined in the <unistd.h> header file, as follows:

_PC_LINK_MAX	The maximum number of links to the file. If the path argument refers to a directory, the value returned applies to the directory itself.
_PC_MAX_CANON	The maximum number of bytes in a canonical input line. This is applicable only to terminal devices.
_PC_MAX_INPUT	The number of types allowed in an input queue. This is applicable only to terminal devices.
_PC_NAME_MAX	Maximum number of bytes in a filename (not including a terminating null). The byte range value is between 13 and 255. This is applicable only to a directory file. The value returned applies to filenames within the directory.
_PC_PATH_MAX	Maximum number of bytes in a pathname (not including a terminating null). The value is never larger than 65,535. This is applicable only to a directory file. The value returned is the maximum length of a relative pathname when the specified directory is the working directory.
_PC_PIPE_BUF	Maximum number of bytes guaranteed to be written atomically. This is applicable only to a FIFO. The value returned applies to the referenced object. If the path argument refers to a directory, the value returned applies to any FIFO that exists or can be created within the directory.
_PC_CHOWN_RESTRICTED	This is applicable only to a directory file. The value returned applies to any files (other than directories) that exist or can be created within the directory.
_PC_NO_TRUNC	Returns 1 if supplying a component name longer than allowed by NAME_MAX causes an error. Returns 0 (zero) if long component names are truncated. This is applicable only to a directory file.
_PC_VDISABLE	This is always 0 (zero); no disabling character is defined. This is applicable only to a terminal device.

Return Values

x

Resultant value of the configuration attribute specified in name.

--1

Indicates an error; errno is set to one of the following values: EACCES -- Search permission is denied for a component of the path prefix. EINVAL -- The name argument specifies an unknown or inapplicable characteristic. EFAULT -- The path argument is an invalid address. ENAMETOOLONG -- The length of the path string exceeds PATH_MAX or a pathname component is longer than NAME_MAX. ENOENT -- The named file does not exist or the path argument points to an empty string. ENOTDI -- A component of the path prefix is not a directory.

Suspends the calling process until delivery of a signal whose action is either to execute a signal-catching function or to terminate the process.

Format

#include <unistd.h>

int pause (void);

Description

This function suspends the calling process until delivery of a signal whose action is either to execute a signal-catching function or to terminate the process.

If the action is to terminate the process, pause does not return.

If the action is to execute a signal-catching function, pause returns after the signal-catching function returns.

Return Value

	Since the pause function suspends process execution indefinitely unless interrupted by a signal, there is no successful completion return value.
--1	In cases where pause returns, the return value is --1, and errno is set to EINTR.

Closes a pipe to a process.

Format

#include <stdio.h>

int pclose (FILE *stream);

Arguments

stream

A pointer to a FILE structure for an open pipe returned by a previous call to the popen function.

Description

This function closes a pipe between the calling program and a shell command to be executed. Use pclose to close any stream you have opened with popen . The pclose function waits for the associated process to end, and then returns the exit status of the command. See the description of waitpid for information on interpreting the exit status.

Beginning with OpenVMS Version 7.3-1, when compiled with the _VMS_WAIT macro defined, the pclose function returns the OpenVMS completion code of the child process.

See also popen in this section.

Return Values

x	Exit status of child.
--1	Indicates an error. The stream argument is not associated with a popen function. errno is set to one of the following: ECHILD -- cannot obtain the status of the child process.

Writes a short error message to stderr describing the current value of errno .

Format

#include <stdio.h>

void perror (const char *str);

Argument

str

Usually the name of the program that caused the error.

Description

This function uses the error number in the external variable errno to retrieve the appropriate locale-dependent error message. The function writes out the message as follows: str (a user-supplied prefix to the error message), followed by a colon and a space, followed by the message itself, followed by a new-line character.

See the description of errno in Chapter 4 for a list of possible errors.

See also strerror in this section.

Example

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> main(argc, argv) int argc; char *argv[]; { FILE *fp; fp = fopen(argv[1], "r"); /* Open an input file. */ if (fp == NULL) { /* If the fopen call failed, perror prints out a */ /* diagnostic: */ /* */ /* "open: <error message>" */ /* This error message provides a diagnostic explaining */ /* the cause of the failure. */ perror("open"); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } else fclose(fd) ; }

Creates a temporary mailbox that can be used to read and write data between a parent and child process. The channels through which the processes communicate are called a pipe.

Format

#include <unistd.h>

int pipe (int array_fdscptr[2]); (ISO POSIX-1)

int pipe (int array_fdscptr[2], ...); (COMPAQ C EXTENSION)

Arguments

array_fdscptr

An array of file descriptors. A pipe is implemented as an array of file descriptors associated with a mailbox. These mailbox descriptors are special in that these are the only file descriptors which, when passed to the isapipe function, will return 1.

The file descriptors are allocated in the following way:

• The first available file descriptor is assigned to writing, and the next available file descriptor is assigned to reading.
• The file descriptors are then placed in the array in reverse order; element 0 contains the file descriptor for reading, and element 1 contains the file descriptor for writing.

...

Represents two optional, positional arguments, flag and bufsize, which follow:

flag

An optional argument used as a bitmask.

If either the O_NDELAY or O_NONBLOCK bit is set, the I/O operations to the mailbox through array_fdscptr file descriptors terminate immediately, rather than waiting for another process.

If, for example, the O_NDELAY bit is set and the child issues a read request to the mailbox before the parent has put any data into it, the read terminates immediately with zero status. If neither the O_NDELAY nor O_NONBLOCK bit is set, the child will be waiting on the read until the parent writes any data into the mailbox. This is the default behavior if no flag argument is specified.

The values of O_NDELAY and O_NONBLOCK are defined in the <fcntl.h> header file. Any other bits in the flag argument are ignored. You must specify this argument if the second optional, positional argument bufsize is specified. If the flag argument is needed only to allow specification of the bufsize argument, specify flag as zero.

bufsize

Optional argument of type int that specifies the size of the mailbox, in bytes. If you do not specify this argument, Compaq C for OpenVMS Systems creates a mailbox with a default size of 512 bytes.

If you do specify this argument, be sure to precede it with a flag argument of 0.

Description

The mailbox used for the pipe is a temporary mailbox. The mailbox is not deleted until all processes that have open channels to that mailbox close those channels. The last process that closes a pipe writes a message to the mailbox, indicating the end-of-file.

The mailbox is created by using the $CREMBX system service, specifying the following characteristics:

• A maximum message length of 512 characters
• A buffer quota of 512 characters
• A protection mask granting all privileges to USER and GROUP and no privileges to SYSTEM or WORLD

The buffer quota of 512 characters implies that you cannot write more than 512 characters to the mailbox before all or part of the mailbox is read. Since a mailbox record is slightly larger than the data part of the message that it contains, not all of the 512 characters can be used for message data. You can increase the size of the buffer by specifying an alternative size using the optional, third argument to the pipe function. A pipe under the OpenVMS system is a stream-oriented file with no carriage-control attributes. It is fully buffered by default in the Compaq C RTL. A mailbox used as a pipe is different than a mailbox created by the application. A mailbox created by the application defaults to a record-oriented file with carriage return, carriage control. Additionally, writing a zero-length record to a mailbox writes an EOF, as does each close of the mailbox. For a pipe, only the last close of a pipe writes an EOF.

The pipe is created by the parent process before vfork and an exec function are called. By calling pipe first, the child inherits the open file descriptors for the pipe. You can then use the getname function to return the name of the mailbox associated with the pipe, if this information is desired. The mailbox name returned by getname has the format _MBAnnnn:, where nnnn is a unique number.

Both the parent and the child need to know in advance which file descriptors will be allocated for the pipe. This information cannot be retrieved at run time. Therefore, it is important to understand how file descriptors are used in any Compaq C for OpenVMS program. For more information about file descriptors, see Chapter 2.

File descriptors 0, 1, and 2 are open in a Compaq C for OpenVMS program for stdin (SYS$INPUT), stdout (SYS$OUTPUT), and stderr (SYS$ERROR), respectively. Therefore, if no other files are open when pipe is called, pipe assigns file descriptor 3 for writing and file descriptor 4 for reading. In the array returned by pipe , 4 is placed in element 0 and 3 is placed in element 1.

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