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This chapter describes the following topics:
In figures in this chapter, the symbol :A specifies the address of the byte containing bit 0, which is the starting address of the represented data element.
Compaq Fortran expects numeric data to be in native little endian order, in which the least-significant, right-most bit (bit 0) or byte has a lower address than the most-significant, left-most bit (or byte).
Table 8-1 lists the intrinsic data types provided by Compaq Fortran, the storage required, and valid numeric ranges.
| Data Type | Bytes | Description |
|---|---|---|
| BYTE (INTEGER*1) | 1 (8 bits) | A BYTE declaration is a signed integer data type equivalent to INTEGER*1 or INTEGER (KIND=1). |
| INTEGER | 1, 2, 4, or 8 | Signed integer whose size is controlled by a kind type parameter or, if a kind type parameter (or size specifier) is omitted, certain FORTRAN command qualifiers (see Section 8.2.1). |
|
INTEGER (KIND=1)
INTEGER*1 |
1 (8 bits) | Signed integer value from --128 to 127 (--2**7 to 2**7--1). Unsigned values from 0 to 255 (2**8-1) 1. |
|
INTEGER (KIND=2)
INTEGER*2 |
2 (16 bits) | Signed integer value from --32,768 to 32,767 (--2**15 to 2**15--1). Unsigned values from 0 to 65535 (2**16-1) 1. |
|
INTEGER (KIND=4)
INTEGER*4 |
4 (32 bits) | Signed integer value from --2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 (--2**31 to 2**31--1). Unsigned values from 0 to 4,294,967,295 (2**32-1) 1. |
|
INTEGER (KIND=8)
INTEGER*8 |
8 (64 bits) | Signed integer value from --9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (--2**63 to 2**63--1). |
| LOGICAL | 1, 2, 4, or 8 | Logical value whose size is controlled by a kind type parameter or, if a kind type parameter (or size specifier) is omitted, certain FORTRAN command qualifiers (see Section 8.3). |
|
LOGICAL (KIND=1)
LOGICAL*1 |
1 (8 bits) | Logical values .TRUE. or .FALSE. 2 |
|
LOGICAL (KIND=2)
LOGICAL*2 |
2 (16 bits) | Logical values .TRUE. or .FALSE. 2 |
|
LOGICAL (KIND=4)
LOGICAL*4 |
4 (32 bits) | Logical values .TRUE. or .FALSE. 2 |
|
LOGICAL (KIND=8)
LOGICAL*8 |
8 (64 bits) | Logical values .TRUE. or .FALSE. 2 |
| REAL | 4 or 8 | Real floating-point numbers whose size is controlled by a kind type parameter or, if a kind type parameter (or size specifier) is omitted, by using the FORTRAN command /REAL_SIZE qualifier. To control the floating-point format used in memory, use the FORTRAN command /FLOAT qualifier. |
|
REAL (KIND=4)
REAL*4 |
4 (32 bits) |
Single-precision real
floating-point values in IEEE S_float or VAX F_float formats.
IEEE S_float normalized values range from 1.17549435E--38 to 3.40282347E38. Values between 1.17549429E--38 and 1.40129846E--45 are denormalized 3. VAX F_float values range from 0.293873588E--38 to 1.7014117E38. |
|
DOUBLE PRECISION
REAL (KIND=8) REAL*8 |
8 (64 bits) |
Double-precision real
floating-point values in IEEE T_float, VAX G_float, or VAX D_float
formats.
IEEE T_float normalized values range from 2.2250738585072013D--308 to 1.7976931348623158D308. Values between 2.2250738585072008D--308 and 4.94065645841246544D--324 are denormalized 3. VAX G_float values range from 0.5562684646268004D--308 to 0.89884656743115785407D308. VAX D_float values range from 0.2938735877055719D--38 to 1.70141183460469229D38. You can change the data size of DOUBLE PRECISION declarations from REAL (KIND=8) to REAL (KIND=16) with the FORTRAN command /DOUBLE_SIZE qualifier. |
|
REAL (KIND=16)
REAL*16 |
16 (128 bits) | Extended-precision real floating-point values in Alpha IEEE-like X_float format ranging from 6.4751751194380251109244389582276465524996Q-4966 to 1.189731495357231765085759326628007016196477Q4932. The smallest normalized number is 3.362103143112093506262677817321753Q-4932. |
| COMPLEX | 8, 16, or 32 | Complex floating-point numbers whose size is controlled by a kind type parameter or, if a kind type parameter (or size specifier) is omitted, the FORTRAN command /REAL_SIZE qualifier. To control the floating-point format used in memory, use the FORTRAN command /FLOAT qualifier. |
|
COMPLEX (KIND=4)
COMPLEX*8 |
8 (64 bits) |
Single-precision complex floating-point values in a pair of
floating-point parts: real and imaginary. Use the IEEE S_float or VAX
F_float format.
IEEE S_float real and imaginary parts range from 1.17549435E--38 to 3.40282347E38. Values between 1.17549429E--38 and 1.40129846E--45 are denormalized 3. VAX F_float real and imaginary parts range from 0.293873588E--38 to 1.7014117E38. |
|
DOUBLE COMPLEX
COMPLEX (KIND=8) COMPLEX*16 |
16 (128 bits) |
Double-precision complex floating-point values in a pair of parts: real
and imaginary. Use the IEEE T_float, VAX G_float, or VAX D_float format.
IEEE T_float format real and imaginary parts each range from 2.2250738585072013D-308 to 1.7976931348623158D308. Values between 2.2250738585072008D--308 and 4.94065645841246544D--324 are denormalized 3. VAX G_float format real and imaginary parts each range from 0.5562684646268004D--308 to 0.89884656743115785407D308. VAX D_float format real and imaginary parts each range from 0.2938735877055719D--38 to 1.70141183460469229D38. |
|
COMPLEX (KIND=16)
COMPLEX*32 |
32 (256 bits) | Extended-precision complex floating-point values in a pair of Compaq IEEE style X_float format parts: real and imaginary. The real and imaginary parts each range from 6.4751751194380251109244389582276465524996Q-4966 to 1.189731495357231765085759326628007016196477Q4932. |
| CHARACTER | 1 byte (8 bits) per character | Character data represented by character code convention. Character declarations can be in the form CHARACTER(LEN= n), CHARACTER( n), or CHARACTER* n, where n is the number of bytes or n can be (*) to indicate passed-length format. |
| HOLLERITH | 1 byte (8 bits) per Hollerith character | Hollerith constants. |
In addition to the intrinsic numeric data types, you can define
nondecimal (binary, octal, or hexadecimal) constants as explained in
the Compaq Fortran Language Reference Manual.
8.2 Integer Data Representations
Integer data lengths can be one, two, four, or eight bytes in length.
Integer data is signed with the sign bit being 0 (zero) for positive numbers and 1 for negative numbers.
To improve performance, avoid using 2-byte or 1-byte integer
declarations (see Chapter 5).
8.2.1 Integer Declarations and FORTRAN Command Qualifiers
The default size used for an INTEGER data declaration without a kind parameter (or size specifier) is INTEGER (KIND=4) (same as INTEGER*4), unless you do one of the following:
Intrinsic INTEGER (KIND=1) or INTEGER*1 signed values range from --128 to 127 and are stored in a two's complement representation. For example:
+22 = 16(hex) -7 = F9(hex) |
INTEGER (KIND=1) or INTEGER*1 values are stored in one byte, as shown in Figure 8-1.
Figure 8-1 INTEGER (KIND=1) or INTEGER*1 Representation
Intrinsic INTEGER (KIND=2) or INTEGER*2 signed values range from --32,768 to 32,767 and are stored in a two's complement representation. For example:
+22 = 0016(hex) -7 = FFF9(hex) |
INTEGER (KIND=2) or INTEGER*2 values are stored in two contiguous bytes, as shown in Figure 8-2.
Figure 8-2 INTEGER (KIND=2) or INTEGER*2 Representation
Intrinsic INTEGER (KIND=4) or INTEGER*4 signed values range from --2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 and are stored in a two's complement representation. INTEGER (KIND=4) or INTEGER*4 values are stored in four contiguous bytes, as shown in Figure 8-3.
Figure 8-3 INTEGER (KIND=4) or INTEGER*4 Representation
Intrinsic INTEGER (KIND=8) or INTEGER*8 signed values range from --9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 and are stored in a two's complement representation. INTEGER*8 or INTEGER (KIND=8) values are stored in eight contiguous bytes, as shown in Figure 8-4.
Figure 8-4 INTEGER (KIND=8) or INTEGER*8 Representation
Logical data can be one, two, four, or eight bytes in length.
The default size used for a LOGICAL data declaration without a kind parameter (or size specifier) is LOGICAL (KIND=4) (same as LOGICAL*4), unless you do one of the following:
To improve performance, avoid using 2-byte or 1-byte logical declarations (see Chapter 5).
Intrinsic LOGICAL*1 or LOGICAL (KIND=1) values are stored in a single byte.
Logical (intrinsic) values can also be stored in the following sizes of contiguous bytes starting on an arbitrary byte boundary:
The low-order bit determines whether the logical value is true or false. Logical variables can also be interpreted as integer data (an extension to the Fortran 90 standard). For example, in addition to having logical values .TRUE. and .FALSE., LOGICAL*1 data can also have values in the range --128 to 127.
LOGICAL*1, LOGICAL*2, LOGICAL*4, and LOGICAL*8 data representations appear in Figure 8-5.
Figure 8-5 LOGICAL Representations
Floating-point numbers are stored on OpenVMS Alpha systems in one of the following IEEE or VAX little endian binary floating-point formats, as follows:
COMPLEX numbers use a pair of little endian REAL values to denote the real and imaginary parts of the data, as follows:
To specify the floating-point format used in memory, use the FORTRAN command /FLOAT qualifier. If you do not specify the /FLOAT (or /G_FLOAT) qualifier, the following formats are used:
To change the default size for REAL and COMPLEX declarations, use the FORTRAN command /REAL_SIZE qualifier.
To change the default size for DOUBLE PRECISION declarations, use the FORTRAN command /DOUBLE_SIZE qualifier.
All floating-point formats represent fractions using sign-magnitude notation, with the binary radix point to the right of the most-significant bit. Fractions are assumed to be normalized, and therefore the most-significant bit is not stored. This is called "hidden bit normalization".
With IEEE data, the hidden bit is assumed to be 1 unless the exponent is 0. If the exponent equals 0, then the value represented is denormalized (subnormal) or plus or minus 0 (zero).
With VAX data, the hidden bit is assumed to be 1.
For an explanation of the representation of NaN, Infinity, and related
IEEE exceptional values on Alpha systems, see Section 8.4.8.
8.4.1 REAL, COMPLEX, and DOUBLE PRECISION Declarations and FORTRAN Qualifiers
The default size for REAL, COMPLEX, and DOUBLE PRECISION data declarations are as follows:
You can explicitly declare the length of a REAL or a COMPLEX declaration using a kind parameter or specify DOUBLE PRECISION or DOUBLE COMPLEX.
Intrinsic REAL kinds are 4 (single precision) and 8 (double precision); intrinsic COMPLEX kinds are also 4 (single precision) and 8 (double precision). For example, REAL (KIND=4) requests single-precision floating-point data.
You can also use a size specifier, such as REAL*4, but be aware this is
an extension to the Fortran 90 standard.
8.4.2 REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 Representations
REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 data can be in IEEE S_float or VAX F_float
formats. This is the default data size for REAL declarations.
8.4.2.1 IEEE S_float Representation
Intrinsic REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 (single precision REAL) data occupies four contiguous bytes stored in IEEE S_float format. Bits are labeled from the right, 0 through 31, as shown in Figure 8-6.
Figure 8-6 IEEE S_float REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 Representation
The form of REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 data is sign magnitude, with:
The value of data is in the approximate range: 1.17549435E--38 (normalized) to 3.40282347E38. The IEEE denormalized limit is 1.40129846E--45.
The precision is approximately one part in 2**23, typically seven
decimal digits.
8.4.2.2 VAX F_float Representation
Intrinsic REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 F_float data occupies four contiguous bytes. Bits are labeled from the right, 0 through 31, as shown in Figure 8-7.
Figure 8-7 VAX F_float REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 Representation
The form of REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 F_float data is sign magnitude, where:
The value of data is in the approximate range: 0.293873588E--38 to 1.7014117E38.
The precision is approximately one part in 2**23, typically seven
decimal digits.
8.4.3 REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 Representations
REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 data can be in IEEE T_float, VAX G_float, or
VAX D_float formats.
8.4.3.1 IEEE T_float Representation
Intrinsic REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 (same as DOUBLE PRECISION) data occupies eight contiguous bytes stored in IEEE T_float format. Bits are labeled from the right, 0 through 63, as shown in Figure 8-8.
Figure 8-8 IEEE T_float REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 Representation
The form of REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 data is sign magnitude, with:
The value of data is in the approximate range: 2.2250738585072013D-308 (normalized) to 1.7976931348623158D308. The IEEE denormalized limit is 4.94065645841246544D-324.
The precision is approximately one part in 2**52, typically 15 decimal
digits.
8.4.3.2 VAX G_float Representation
Intrinsic REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 (same as DOUBLE PRECISION) G_float data occupies eight contiguous bytes. The bits are labeled from the right, 0 through 63, as shown in Figure 8-9.
Figure 8-9 VAX G_float REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 Representation
The form of REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 G_float data is sign magnitude, where:
The value of data is in the approximate range: 0.5562684646268004D--308 to 0.89884656743115785407D308.
The precision of G_float data is approximately one part in 2**52,
typically 15 decimal digits.
8.4.3.3 VAX D_float Representation
Intrinsic REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 (same as DOUBLE PRECISION) D_float data occupies eight contiguous bytes. Bits are labeled from the right, 0 through 63, as shown in Figure 8-10.
Figure 8-10 VAX D_float REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 Representation
The form of REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 D_float data is identical to an F_float real number, except for an additional 32 low-significance fraction bits. The exponent conventions and approximate range of values are the similar to those for F_float.
The value of data is in the approximate range: 0.2938735877055719D--38 to 1.70141183460469229D38.
The precision is approximately one part in 2**55, typically 16 decimal
digits. Calculations with D_float data on Alpha systems use G_float
precision (53-bit instead of 56-bit fraction).
8.4.4 REAL (KIND=16) or REAL*16 X_float Representation
REAL*16 data occupies 16 contiguous bytes stored in X_float format. Bits are labeled from the right, 0 through 127, as shown in Figure 8-11.
Figure 8-11 X_float REAL (KIND=16) Floating-Point Data Representation
The form of REAL (KIND=16) data is sign magnitude, with:
The value of data is in the approximate range: 6.4751751194380251109244389582276465524996Q-4966 to 1.189731495357231765085759326628007016196477Q4932. The smallest normalized number is 3.362103143112093506262677817321753Q-4932. Unlike other floating-point formats, there is little if any performance penalty from using denormalized extended-precision numbers. This is because accessing denormalized REAL (KIND=16) numbers does not result in an arithmetic trap (the extended-precision format is emulated in software).
The precision is approximately one part in 2**112 or typically 33
decimal digits.
8.4.5 COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*8 Representations
COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*4 data can be in IEEE S_float or VAX F_float formats. This is the default data size for COMPLEX declarations.
Intrinsic COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*8 (single-precision COMPLEX) data is eight contiguous bytes containing a pair of REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 values stored in IEEE S_float format or VAX F_float format.
The low-order four bytes contain REAL (KIND=4) data that represents the real part of the complex number. The high-order four bytes contain REAL (KIND=4) data that represents the imaginary part of the complex number,
The limits (and underflow characteristics for S_float numbers) for REAL (KIND=4) or REAL*4 apply to the two separate real and imaginary parts of a COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*8 number. Like REAL (KIND=4) numbers, the sign bit representation is 0 (zero) for positive numbers and 1 for negative numbers.
Figure 8-12 shows the IEEE S_float representation of COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*8 numbers.
Figure 8-12 IEEE S_float COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*8 Representation
Figure 8-13 shows the VAX F_float representation of COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*8 numbers.
Figure 8-13 VAX F_float COMPLEX (KIND=4) or COMPLEX*8 Representation
COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 data can be in IEEE T_float, VAX G_float, or VAX D_float formats.
Intrinsic COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 (same as DOUBLE COMPLEX) data is 16 contiguous bytes containing a pair of REAL*8 values stored in IEEE T_float format, VAX G_float, or VAX D_float formats.
The low-order eight bytes contain REAL (KIND=8) data that represents the real part of the complex data. The high-order eight bytes contain REAL (KIND=8) data that represents the imaginary part of the complex data.
Like REAL (KIND=8) or REAL*8 numbers, the sign bit representation is 0 (zero) for positive numbers and 1 for negative numbers. The limits (and underflow characteristics for T_float numbers) apply to the two separate real and imaginary parts of a COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 number.
Figure 8-14 shows the IEEE T_float COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 representation.
Figure 8-14 IEEE T_float COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 Representation
Figure 8-15 (G_float) and Figure 8-16 (D_float) show the representation of the VAX COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 numbers.
Figure 8-15 VAX G_float COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 Representation
Figure 8-16 VAX D_float COMPLEX (KIND=8) or COMPLEX*16 Representation
Intrinsic COMPLEX (KIND=16) or COMPLEX*32 (extended precision) data is 32 contiguous bytes containing a pair of REAL*16 values stored in Compaq IEEE style X_float.
The low-order 16 bytes contain REAL (KIND=16) data that represents the real part of the complex data. The high-order 16 bytes contain REAL (KIND=16) data that represents the imaginary part of the complex data, as shown in Figure 8-17.
Figure 8-17 COMPLEX (KIND=16) or COMPLEX*32 Representation
The limits and underflow characteristics for REAL (KIND=16) apply to the two separate real and imaginary parts of a COMPLEX (KIND=16) or COMPLEX*32 number. Like REAL (KIND=16) numbers, the sign bit representation is 0 (zero) for positive numbers and 1 for negative numbers.
Exceptional values usually result from a computation and include plus infinity, minus infinity, NaN, and denormalized numbers. Exceptional values and the representation of zero are associated only with IEEE S_float, T_float, and X_float formats (/FLOAT=IEEE_FLOAT qualifier), not with VAX floating-point formats. (VAX floating-point representation of minus (--) zero causes a reserved operand fault on VAX systems.)
Floating-point numbers can be one of the following:
A NaN or infinity value might result from a calculation that contains a divide by zero, overflow, or invalid data.
A denormalized number occurs when the result of a calculation falls within the denormalized range for that data type (subnormal value).
To control floating-point exception handling at run time for the main program, use the appropriate /IEEE_MODE qualifier keyword. For example, if an exceptional value is used in a calculation, an unrecoverable exception can occur unless you specify the appropriate /IEEE_MODE qualifier keyword. Denormalized numbers can be processed as is, set equal to zero with program continuation or a program stop, and generate warning messages (see Section 2.3.23).
Table 8-2 lists the hexadecimal (hex) values of the IEEE exceptional floating-point numbers in Alpha systems, for S_float (single precision), T_float (double precision), and X_float (extended precision) formats:
| Exceptional Number | Hex Value |
|---|---|
| S_float Representation | |
| Infinity (+) | Z ' 7F800000 ' |
| Infinity (-) | Z ' FF800000 ' |
| Zero (+0) | Z ' 00000000 ' |
| Zero (-0) | Z ' 80000000 ' |
| Quiet NaN (+) | From Z ' 7FC00000 ' to Z ' 7FFFFFFF ' |
| Signaling NaN (+) | From Z ' 7F800001 ' to Z ' 7FBFFFFF ' |
| T_float Representation | |
| Infinity (+) | Z ' 7FF0000000000000 ' |
| Infinity (-) | Z ' FFF0000000000000 ' |
| Zero (+0) | Z ' 0000000000000000 ' |
| Zero (-0) | Z ' 8000000000000000 ' |
| Quiet NaN (+) | From Z ' 7FF8000000000000 ' to Z ' 7FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF ' |
| Signaling NaN (+) | From Z ' 7FF0000000000001 ' to Z ' 7FF7FFFFFFFFFFFF ' |
| X_float Representation | |
| Infinity (+) | Z ' 7FFF0000000000000000000000000000 ' |
| Infinity (-) | Z ' FFFF0000000000000000000000000000 ' |
| Zero (+0) | Z ' 000000000000000000000000000000000 ' |
| Zero (-0) | Z ' 800000000000000000000000000000000 ' |
| Quiet NaN (+) | From Z ' 7FFF80000000000000000000000000000 ' to Z ' 7FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF ' |
| Signaling NaN (+) | From Z ' 7FFF00000000000000000000000000001 ' to Z ' 7FFF7FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF ' |
Compaq Fortran supports IEEE exception handling, allowing you to test for infinity by using a comparison of floating-point data (such as generating positive infinity by using a calculation such as x=1.0/0 and comparing x to the calculated number).
The appropriate FORTRAN command /IEEE_MODE qualifier keyword allows program continuation when a calculation results in a divide by zero, overflow, or invalid data arithmetic exception, generating an exceptional value (a NaN or Infinity (+ or --)).
To test for a NaN when Compaq Fortran allows continuation for arithmetic exception, you can use the ISNAN intrinsic function. Example 8-1 shows how to use the ISNAN intrinsic function to test whether a REAL*8 (DOUBLE PRECISION) value contains a NaN.
| Example 8-1 Testing for a NaN Value |
|---|
DOUBLE PRECISION A, B, F
A = 0.
B = 0.
! Perform calculations with variables A and B
.
.
.
! f contains the value to check against a particular NaN
F = A / B
IF (ISNAN(F)) THEN
WRITE (6,*) '--> Variable F contains a NaN value <--'
ENDIF
! Inform user that f has the hardware quiet NaN value
! Perform calculations with variable F (or stop program early)
END
|
To allow continuation when a NaN (or other exceptional value) is encountered in a calculation, this program might be compiled with /FLOAT=IEEE_FLOAT and /IEEE_MODE=UNDERFLOW_TO_ZERO (or /IEEE_MODE=DENORM_RESULTS) qualifiers:
$ FORTRAN/FLOAT=IEEE_FLOAT/IEEE_MODE=UNDERFLOW_TO_ZERO ISNAN $ LINK ISNAN $ RUN ISNAN --> Variable F contains a NaN value <-- |
To enable additional run-time message reporting with traceback information (source line correlation), use the FORTRAN command qualifier /CHECK=FP_EXCEPTIONS.
The FP_CLASS intrinsic function is also available to check for exceptional values (see the Compaq Fortran Language Reference Manual).
A character string is a contiguous sequence of bytes in memory, as shown in Figure 8-18.
Figure 8-18 CHARACTER Data Representation
A character string is specified by two attributes: the address A of the first byte of the string, and the length L of the string in bytes. The length L of a string is in the range 1 through 65,535.
Hollerith constants are stored internally, one character per byte. When Hollerith constants contain the ASCII representation of characters, they resemble the storage of character data (see Figure 8-18).
When Hollerith constants store numeric data, they usually have a length of one, two, four, or eight bytes and resemble the corresponding numeric data type.
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